Anne-Marie+Byrne-Final+Project

= = =Incorporating Transition Planning Concepts/Strategies into Academic Areas=

//The strategies gave me a structure so that I could put boundaries and parameters around those whizzing little molecules in my mind and turn them into something that made sense//. Brandon, College Graduate (p.165).

from //Embedding Strategy Instruction into Daily Teaching Practices// Chapter 8: __Executive Function In Function__ edited by Lynn Meltzer.The Guildford Press, 2007.

Introduction
Transition planning has as its’ very core the concept of setting a plan for a successful move from school to post-secondary education, vocational training, integrated employment, and community participation based on the student’s preferences, interests and abilities. A high school diploma is no longer sufficient and at least some postsecondary education is required for a reasonably paying job (Carnevale & Desrochers, 2003). Students with disabilities need a set of skills to successfully make the transition to, and remain in college. Ensuring that students with disabilities have access to and full participation in post-secondary education is a definite focus in secondary education and transition planning for these students is critical. Awareness of one’s strengths and weaknesses, intensity of advocacy skill and degree of persistence are among the important tools required by the learning disabled student who is progressing on to post secondary education. Well developed learning strategy skills are also critical.

Super, Savickas, & Super,(1996 ) describe four career development tasks thought to be central to the growth stage:
 * becoming concerned about the future
 * increasing personal control over one’s life
 * developing an awareness of the importance of achieving in school and work
 * and acquiring competent work habits and attitudes.

Core transitional skills that need to be acquired are:
 * Self-Advocacy and Self-Determination Skills
 * Learning Strategy Skills

Historical Perspective
The number of post secondary students reporting a disability has increased significantly (Horn& Berktold, 1999) as a result of federal legislation such as The American with Disabilities Act (ADA) in 1990 (PL 101-336) and the reauthorized Individuals with Disabilities Act (IDEA) Amendments of 1997 (PL 105-17). The National Council on Disability (2000) revealed the as many as 17% of all students attending higher education programs in America were identified as having a disability. With the “broadened” definition of disability as a result of the ADA Amendment Act of 2008 one can expect that the percentage of students with these issues aspiring to and indeed attending post secondary institutions will increase. With the anticipated increased participation level and the fact that completion of post secondary education, including vocational-technical training, significantly improves the chances of gaining and maintaining employment and financial independence, it is important to identify and support the development of the skills required by the learning disabled individual in order to be successful at this level. When students with disabilities enter post secondary education they are expected to advocate for their necessary supports. This emphasizes the need to develop self advocacy and determination skills as part of the high school transition process (Kohler&Field, 2003). This 'knowledge of self' involves the executive capacity to integrate one's goals,skills and motivation in order to attain desired results. Teaching learner managed strategies to students with learning disabilities at the college level, is enabling. (Keller et al 2005). Effective strategy use for LD students can result in improved academic performance which in turn affects persistance, motivation and self esteem. (Meltzer, 1996: Meltzer et al 2004).

__Self Advocacy-Determination__
When transitions are self-determined, students are more committed to the process, take greater ownership of its’ outcomes, and adjust to new situations in more personally meaningful and lasting ways (p.3) Field, Further to these observations, Field and Hoffman(2010) noted that with regard to these skills:
 * //The specific knowledge and skills needed for self-determination must be taught//
 * //Ample opportunities to apply and practice self-determination skills must be provided//
 * //Positive, supportive relationships with caring adults must be developed//
 * //A predictable environment must be provided//
 * //Self determination must be modelled//


 * Strategies for Teaching Self-Advocacy and Determination Skills**

Numerous teaching strategies have been developed and sucessfully implemented to develop self-advocacy and determination skills - including the following:
Peer role modeling - allowing opportunities for student to learn from peers in cooperative group settings and/or mentor-ship programs where students are paired with mentors who have similar challenges and interests
 * Modeling – encouraging involvement in mentorship programs which allow the student to observe role models who are set up to demonstrate self-advocacy skills.


 * Understanding the situation – the student must be very familiar with his/her learning disability including strengths and weaknesses and the accommodations that facilitate her/his learning. Teaching awareness of disability and what accommodations and /or assistive technology needs are beneficial.


 * Knowledge – of the law and their legal rights and the need to indicate their requirements to school officials ,to provide documentation and request the appropriate accommodations.


 * Communication skills – the ability and self esteem required to tactfully request accommodations is critical to success in the post secondary school. Learning how to plan a discussion/conversation with instructors…about their difficulties, learning style etc. Then allowing practice time with peers, counselors or teachers.


 * Work-based learning – structure an opportunity for students to observe and use academic skills within the worksite. Students get the benefit of observing and experiencing opportunities for real-life work-related learning in academic instruction. This is a great for motivation to learn academic subjects.


 * Teaching technology – instructional strategies that rely on active learner participation; this approach and self-management technology has been very successful in learning self-determination (for special and general education).


 * Students Input strategies– help decide the assessment questions that will be answered. actively participate in the data gathering process, help interpret results offer suggestions about assessment procedures, participate or conduct interviews to collect needed information, assemble portfolio information, and use assessment results to help make informed decisions and define educational goals. Opportunities for choice - providing students with numerous and various opportunities to make choices. This allows students to receive apply and practice feedback on their choice-making skills.


 * Modeling by Instructors and Administrators – research shows that students learn significantly from what is modeled by educators.


 * Self assessment - periodic opportunities to reflect on progress should be incorporated into program.


 * Student leadership activities – effective advocacy, personal self-determination and responsible leadership are needed to build community and value diversity.


 * Attribution retraining – LD students often attribute their failings to a lack of ability and to attribute their successes to luck. Using this strategy students are helped to understand the consequences of their active roles in the learning process. Teaching effective learning and academic strategies are critical to this approach.


 * Teach and reinforce internal locus of control - teachers encourage the sense of locus of control by promoting positive, supportive classroom environment where expectations are clearly outlined and students assume responsibility for meeting course requirements.


 * Literature – students can gain better understanding of locus of control by reading and or viewing movies, analyzing behaviours in literature and identifying this in characters, eg. students can discuss how characters can change their behaviours to demonstrate more of a locus of control.


 * Role play – of characters demonstrating different locus of control


 * Journalling - students are provided with time and opportunity to journal and share about their experiences etc.

Curricula and Website Resources
A solid instructional program to build self –advocacy/determination can be developed by pulling from many of these resources:

__Project ‘LEAD’__ LEAD is an educational program which focuses on developing student academic self-awareness and specific awareness about their individual learning disability ( Pocock, Lambros, Karvonen& Test, 2002).

__I-PLAN__ A motivation strategy that students can use to communicate effectively during a planning conference (similar to the student led IEP planning etc). Students are taught: (Goldhammer,R .1990).
 * 1) “I” inventory strengths, weaknesses, goals and interests and choices for learning.
 * 2) “P” provide inventory information.
 * 3) “L” listen and respond.
 * 4) “A” ask questions
 * 5) “N” name your goals.

__Next Step__ The ‘Next Step’ curriculum has 19 lessons which teach students skills in the area of self-evaluation, choosing goals and activities, taking charge of transitioning process, following through on the choices made and keeping track of progress (Zang,2001). Daily living skills, occupational guidance, and personal-social skills are the 3 main skill sets in this program. Specific functional competencies are identified. The competencies of: achieving self-awareness, acquiring self confidence, making adequate decisions, and achieving independence which are sited as critical for the development of self-determination skill.This program provides guided practice for students to set goals, implement plans to meet these goals, evaluate their actions and adjust their goals. Students participate in self-exploration and self evaluation activities. This program has been successfully infused in English, information technology and applied sciences classes.

__Interactive Hypermedia Program__ This is an interactive computer program that teaches self-advocacy strategies (Lancaster, Schumaker,& Deschler 2002).

__The Self-determined Learning Model of Instruction__ This program presents the students with a 3 phase instructional process. Each phase includes problems that the student must solve by creating and answering 4 questions that allow them in learning, modifying and reaching self-selected goals (Wehmeyer et al 2000).

__The Self Advocacy Handbook__ This program encourages students to develop and practice communication skills and role-playing about: reasons for needed accommodations and modifications, their disability and its implications, individual strengths and weaknesses, rights and responsibilities as related to the law (Rabideau & Pierson 2001).

__Steps to Self-determination__ Designed by Field& Hoffman, students identify and work on goals. It can be used separately or embedded in an existing course. The focus is on the strategies of cooperative learning, modeling and experiential learning. The importance of listening is emphasized as are using teachable moments and interdisciplinary teaching.

__Choicemaker Self-Determination Transition Curriculum__ Videos and lesson plans are included to help develop student self-determination in preparing forall aspects of transition and life. the IEP process. There are 3 teaching objectives: indicating goal-setting purpose and component, identifying student rights and identifying goal-setting roles and timelines.(Martin,Marshall,Maxon,Jerman,Hughes,Miller & McGill (2000.)

**Websites**
[] This ed.gov site outlines all the information that students and families need to know about their rights and responsibilities as well as the responsibility that postsecondary school have in servicing the learning disabled student.

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This website contains a variety of self-determination instructional materials, practical guides to teaching these skills, and materials for adolescents. The ARC’s Self-Determination Scale is also available.======

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Contains a directory of model school programs promoting self-advocacy skills for LD students as well as information on research studies on self-advocacy, lesson plans, curricular materials and related links.======

**__Learning Strategies/Study Skills__**
Teaching metacognitive skills to students (including those with learning disabilities) improves academic performance (Protheroe & Clarke, 2008). According to The National Center for Learning Disabilities (NLCD), the most effective instructional strategies for students with learning disabilities are those that combined direct instruction with strategy instruction. Understanding what is expected of you and having knowledge about one’s learning style assists in adjusting to the postsecondary setting.
 * Several important priciples consistently appear in the literature regrading strategy instruction:
 * Strategy instruction should be directly linked with the curriculum
 * Metacognitve strategies should be taught explicitly
 * Strategies should be taught in a structured,systematic way using scaffolding and modelling and providng time for practice
 * Students motivation and self-understaniding should be addressed to ensure generalized use of strategies (Meltzer, L.,Pollica,L.S.,Barzillai M. in __Executive Function In Education__, edited by Lynn Meltzer (2007) p.168.

So HOW do we teach students HOW to use learning strategies:


 * Help students choose and implement the effective use of learning strategies – which in turn helps to strengthen metacognitive abilities and then in turn improved student learning/improve performance/increase independence and engagement /helps students to realize that sometimes the use of ineffective strategies- not lack of ability hinders performance.


 * Knowledge of what the strategy is, and when and where to use it. This knowledge MUST be taught - and this is best taught in context of content area instruction.


 * Only one new element should be presented at a time and presented in familiar content.


 * Instruction about strategies should be explicit. It should begin with teacher modeling (seeing it in action!) of the skill or strategy followed by structured opportunities to practice and apply the skill (especially in slightly different tasks)- with teacher feedback provided to reinforce appropriate use of the strategy and correction or re-teaching if strategy is incorrectly applied.


 * Think out loud talk through the use of the strategy and encourage the students to do the same….this also provides the opportunity to hear where the process has gone wrong


 * Opportunities for students to generalize the use of a strategy to a new task.need to be arranged and provided


 * And of course each of these strategies can be applied to any core academic area…think read alouds…

Best practices tell us that good instructors:
 * Introduce the strategy by modeling it and describing it
 * Sell the strategy by telling why it works
 * Generalize the strategy by telling where else it might be useful and
 * Help students perfect the strategy by providing practice opportunities. (Kiewrw 2002)

Multisensory memory strategies can help students with LD and can, over time be internalized into habits! But direct instruction, guided practice and repetition is critical:

 * ===== Memory strategies – important for automatic math fact recall, memorizing the order of operations, and remembering steps in problem solving: checklists, acronyms and templates =====
 * ==== Visual strategies – combining visual strategies with verbal strategies can improve understanding, attention and memory. ====
 * ==== Hands-on strategies – manipulation of objects enhances learning for some students. ====

==== **Organizing Strategies** – organizing the necessary information required to solve math problems can create havoc for LD students. Again direct instruction and guided practice of strategies can be beneficial: ====
 * ==== RAPS - Read/Art/Plan and Predict/Solve – Roadmaps are directly taught math strategy which helps students focus and use an organized approach to the problem ( also appeals to several modalities) (Meltzer et al., 1996,2006). ====
 * ==== Triple Note Tote – this strategy uses 3 column note taking. This provides a structure that helps the student the usable information ( amid ALL the available information!). Having the student develop their own template is particularly valuable. For example the headings might be: Math Term/Definition/Example ( BrainCogs:Research Institute for Learning and Development & Fable Vision,2005) ====

from //The Strategic Math Classroom// by Bethany Roditi and Joan Steinberg (p.237-260) in __Executive Function in Education__ edited by Lynn Meltzer 2007,The Guidford Press.

**__Websites and Resources for Learning Strategies__**
BrainCogs (Institute for Learning and Development and Fable Vision) ,2004. This interactive software teaches students to develop strategies for learning and studying. The student uses strategies which match their learning profiles.

[|www.nicy.org/pubs/newsdig/nd25.pdf] An article on learning strategies and learning strategy instruction

[|www.ku-crl.org] University of Kansas Center for Research on Learning website provides a discussion of the Learning Strategy Curriculum

[|www.ldonline.org/article/5912] Three specific mnemonic strategies are discussed as well teaching techniques are outlined

[|www.jimwrightonline.com/pdfdocs/dirinstr.pdf] The article ”Introducing Academic Strategies to Students: A Direct-Instruction Approach” written by Jim Wright outlines step-by step procedures to teaching effective strategies.

LDOline [|http://www.ldonline.org] This site has a lot of information on college preparation for students with learning disabilities.

How to Study: a Study Skills Resource Site [|http://how-to-study.com] This site provides access to numerous study skill programs(in both Spanish and English).

Why Collegiate Consortium and Disability Advocates [|http://www.ccdanet.org] This site has information on issues for students with disabilities transitioning into postsecondary education.

University of Nebraska-Lincoln Cognitive Strategy Instruction: Written Composition [] Various sample graphic organizes are available at this site. These would be useful for the completion of writing assignments.

University of Nebraska-Lincoln cognitive strategy Instruction: Note Taking [] This site provides information on note-taking strategies.

College Survival Skills [] Tips for learning disabled students in order to facilitate success at college.

Teaching Time Management To students with Learning Disabilities [] Information and activities that address time-management issues for students with LD.

LDOnline This site provides information on college preparation for students with learning disabilities. [|http://www.ldonline.org]

High School students with LD or AD/HD: Considering College This article has guidelines for making good decisions about college. []

How to Study: A study Skills resource site Free access to a wide variety of study skill programs and guides. [|http://www.how-to-study.com]

College students and Disability Law Information about the legal rights and protection of students with LD who are attending colleges. []

Post ITT This site was designed for high school students and provides guidance activities for parents as well! []

WNY Collegiate consortium and Disability Advocates [|http://www.ccdanet.org] This site provides information on issues for students with disabilities transitioning into postsecondary education

__College Success for Students with Learning Disabilities__ by Cynthia Simpson and Vicky Spencer.Prufock Press:2009
 * BOOKS**:

__Keys To Effective Learning -Developing Powerful Habits of Mind__ by Carol Carter, Joyce Bishop and Sarah Kravits. Pearson Prentice Hall,New Jersey:2008

__Study and Critical thinking Skillls in College__ by Kathleen McWhorter. Pearson Education:2006

__Executive Function in Education from Theory to Practice__ edited by Lynn Meltzer.The Guildford Press:2007

Bibliography__/References__
Byron, J. (1990). Self-advocacy for college students with learning disabilities. Presentation at Postsecondary Training Institute: Training College Students with Learning Disabilities, Conference at University of Connecticut, Hartford.

Carnevale, A., & Desrochers, D. (2003). Standards for what? The economic roots of K-16 reform. Princeton,NJ: Education Testing Service. Retrieved January 8, 2008, from []

Field, S., & Hoffman, A. (2010) The International Child and Youth Care network CYC-Online, Issue 135, May 2010.

Goldhammer, R. (1990,Fall). I-PLAN: //Implications for teaching self-advocacy skills to college students with learning disabililiites//. Latest Developments, 2-5.

Horn, L.,& Berhtold, J. (1999). Students with disabilities in postsecondary education: A profile of preparation, participation, and outcomes, NCES 1999-187. Washington,D.C.: US Government Printing Office, US Department of education, National Center for Educational Statistics. Izzo, M.V.,Hertzfeld,J.E.,and Aaron,J.H.,(2001). Raising the Bar: Student self-determination + good teaching = success. //Journal of Vocational Special Needs Educators,// 1-28.

Individuals with Disabilities Education Act of 1990, P.L. 101-476.20 U.S.C.section 1400 er seq. Individuals with Disabilities Education Act Amendments 2008

Keller, C.,Brady, M., & Taylor, R. (2005). Using self-evaluation to improve student teacher interns’ use of specific praise. //Education and Tunning in Developmental Disabilities//, //40//, 368-376.

Kiewra, K.A. (2002,Spring). How classroom teachers can help students learn and teach them how to learn. //Theory into Practice, 71-80.//

Kohler, P. & Field, S. (2003). Transition-focused education: Foundation for the future. //Journal of Special Education, 37//(3), 174-184.

Koestner, R., Ryan, R. M. ,Bernieri, R., & Holt, K. ( 1984) The effects of controlling versus information limit-setting styles on children’s intrinsic motivation and creativity. //Journal of Personlaity, 52//, 233-248.

Lancaster, P. E., Schumaker, J.B., & Deshler, D.D. (2002) The development and validation of an interactive hypermedia program for teaching self-advocacy strategy to students with disabilities. //Learning Disability Quarterly, 25//, 277-303.

Martin,J.E.,Marshall,L., Maxon, L.,Jerman,P., Hughes,W., Miller,T. ,& McGill,T. (2000). Choicemaker,Longmont,CO: Sopris West

Martin, J., & Marshall,L.(1995). Change Maker: A comprehensive self-determination transition program. //Intervention in School and Clinic, 30//, 147-156.

Meltzer, L.(,2007) __Executive Function in Education__ 2007. The Guildford Press: N.Y.

Meltzer, L., (1996). Strategic learning in students with learning disabilities: The role of self-awareness and self-perception. In T.E. Scruggs & M. Mastropieri (Eds.), //Advances in Learning and behavioral disabilities// : (Vol.10b, pp 181-199). Greenwich, CT: JAI Press.

Meltzer, L., Roditi, B., Steinberg, J., Biddle, K.R., Taber, S., Caron, K. B., et al.(2005). __Strategies for success: Classroom teaching techniques for students with learning differences__ (2nd ed.) Austin, TX:Pro-Ed.

National Dissemination Center for Students with Disabilities. " Learning strategies for Students with Learning Disabilities ," []

Pocock, A., Lambros, S., Karvonen, M., Test, D.W. Algozzine B., Wood, W.& Martin J. (2002) Successful strategies for promoting self-advocacy among students with learning disabilities: The LEAD group. //Intervention in School and Clinic, 37//, 209-216.

Protheroe, N.,& Clarke, S.,Learning strategies as a Key to Student Success. //Principal,// November/December 2008.

Rabidneau, R.,& Pierson, M.(2001). A __self-advocacy handbook for students with special needs__. Anaheim,CA:DAC Educational Publishing.

Scott, S. (1991). A change in legal status: An overlooked dimension in the transition to higher education. //Journal of Learning Disabilities, 24//,459-466.

Spector, S., Decker, K. & Shaw, S.F. (1991). Independence and responsibility: An LD resource room at South Windsor High School. //Intervention in School and Clinic, 26//, 159- 167.

Super, D., Savickas, M., & Super, C. (1996) The Life-span,life-space approach to carreers. In D. Brown& L. Brooks (Eds.), __Career choice and development: Applying contemporary theories to practice__ (3rded., pp. 122-178). San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.

Wehmeyer, M., Palmer,S., Agran, M., Mithaug,D., & Martin, J.(2000). Promoting Causal Agency: The Self-determination Learning Model of Instuction. //Exceptional Children, (66)//4, 439-453.

Zhang, D. (2001). The effect of NEXT S.T.E.P. Instruction on the Self-determination skills of high school students with learning disabilities.//Career Development for Exceptional Individuals, 24//, 121-132.